Cellulitis and other bacterial skin infections

  • PIC logo
    PIC Endorsed
  • See also

    Antibiotics

    Invasive group A streptococcal infections: management of household contacts
    Periorbital and orbital cellulitis

    Sepsis


    Key points

    1. Cellulitis is a spreading infection of the skin extending to involve the subcutaneous tissues. Many conditions present similarly to cellulitis — always consider differential diagnoses
    2. The typical presenting features of all skin infections include soft tissue redness, warmth and swelling, but other features are variable
    3. Allergic reactions and contact dermatitis are frequently misdiagnosed as cellulitis. If there is itch and no tenderness, cellulitis is unlikely

    Background

    Cellulitis

    • The most common causes are Group A streptococcus (GAS) and Staphylococcus aureus. Predisposing factors include skin abrasions, lacerations, burns, eczematous skin, chickenpox, etc. although the portal of entry of organisms is often not seen

    Impetigo (commonly called "school sores") 

    • Highly contagious infection of the epidermis, particularly common in young children.  Causative organisms are GAS and S. aureus
    • May be associated with scabies

    Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS) 

    • Blistering skin disorder induced by the exfoliative (epidermolytic) toxins of S. aureus. Primarily affects neonates and young children

    Necrotising fasciitis 

    • Rapidly progressive soft tissue infection characterised by necrosis of subcutaneous tissue
    • Causative organisms include GAS, S. aureus, anaerobes and is often polymicrobial
    • It causes severe illness with a high mortality rate (~25%)
    • Recent infection with varicella is a risk factor

    Cellulitis associated with water borne organisms

    • Aeromonas species (fresh or brackish water, and mud)
    • Mycobacterium marinum (fish tanks)
    • Vibrio species (salt or brackish water)
    • S. aureus, including MRSA
    • GAS (coral cuts)

    Infected animal/human bites

    There are many other forms of skin infection that are not covered in this guideline

    Assessment

    Typical presentation of all skin infections

    • Soft tissue redness
    • Warmth and swelling
    • Pain/tenderness

    Mild Cellulitis

    • Features above
    • No systemic features
    • No significant co-morbidities 

    Moderate Cellulitis

    • Features above with moderate swelling and tenderness
    • Systemic features (eg fever, tachycardia)

    Severe Cellulitis

    • Features above with severe swelling or tenderness
    • Large body surface area involved (eg larger than the patient’s handprint)
    • Marked systemic features (eg fever or hypothermia, tachycardia, tachypnoea, altered conscious state, unwell appearance, hypotension — this is a late sign). See Sepsis

    Features suggestive of necrotising fasciitis include:

    • severe pain out of keeping with apparent severity of infection
    • rapid progression
    • marked systemic features (eg high fever with rigors, tachycardia, tachypnoea, hypotension, confusion, vomiting). See Sepsis

    Red flags

    • Abscess or suppuration
    • Animal or human bite
    • Deep structure involvement
    • Foreign body
    • Immunosuppression
    • Lymphangitis
    • MRSA infection
    • Multiple comorbidities
    • Periorbital/facial/hand involvement
    • Varicella associated infection

    Differential Diagnosis

    Large local reactions to insect bites are a common mimic of cellulitis. Features include:

    • a punctum at the site
    • itch as a prominent feature
    • redness and induration, but rarely pain

    Management

    Investigations

    • Swab for Gram stain (charcoal / gel / bacterial transport swab and slide) and culture if discharge present
    • Blood culture is not useful in mild/moderate cellulitis
    • Consider imaging (eg ultrasound) if abscess, deep infection or foreign body suspected

    Treatment

    • Manage sepsis if features present
    • Manage source if identifiable — ie remove foreign body, drain abscess
    • For ongoing management refer to flowchart below

    Cellulitis

    Summary of antibiotic therapy

    Antimicrobial recommendations may vary according to local antimicrobial susceptibility patterns; please refer to local guidelines

    Cellulitis frequently looks worse after 24 hours of treatment; consider waiting 48 hours to change therapies  
    Young, unvaccinated children are at risk of Haemophilus influenzae type B (Hib)

    Diagnosis

    Antibiotic

    Total duration

    Comments

    Impetigo

    Topical Mupirocin 2% ointment or cream to crusted areas tds OR              

    Cefalexin 33 mg/kg (max 500 mg) oral bd if widespread or large lesions

    5 days

     

    Mild cellulitis

    Cefalexin 33 mg/kg (max 500 mg) oral tds 

    5 days

     

    Moderate cellulitis

    A trial of high-dose oral antibiotics with close review may be considered:

    Cefalexin 33 mg/kg (max 1 g) oral tds 

    Consider Ambulatory/Hospital-in-the-Home (HITH) if available:
    Ceftriaxone 50 mg/kg (max 2g) IV daily  
    Cefazolin 50 mg/kg (max 2g) IV bd 

    5–10 days

    If oral antibiotics not tolerated or no improvement after 48 hours, manage as per severe cellulitis
    When improving, switch to oral antibiotics as per mild cellulitis

    Severe cellulitis
    or
    Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome

    Flucloxacillin 50 mg/kg (max 2 g) IV 6H
    (if rapidly progressive consider adding Clindamycin 10 mg/kg (max 600 mg) IV 6H)

     

    5–10 days

    Consider early discharge to HITH once stable. When improving, switch to oral antibiotics as per mild cellulitis

    Necrotising fasciitis

    Vancomycin and Meropenem 20 mg/kg IV (max 1 g) 8H
    AND
    Clindamycin 10 mg/kg (max 600 mg) IV 6H

    Urgent referral to surgical team for debridement
    Seek specialist advice for antibiotics
    Consider IVIg

    Mammalian bites (uninfected / prophylactic)

    Often do not need prophylactic antibiotics. When indicated*:
    Amoxicillin/Clavulanate
    80 mg/mL amoxicillin oral liquid (7:1)
    22.5 mg/kg (max 875 mg) oral bd 

    5 days

     

    Animal/human bites (established infection)

    Amoxicillin/Clavulanate
    80 mg/mL amoxicillin oral liquid (7:1)
    22.5 mg/kg (max 875 mg) oral bd                      
    If unable to tolerate oral antibiotics:
    25 mg/kg (max 1g) IV 6–8H  

    5 days (extend if severe, penetrating, involving deep tissues)

    Seek specialist advice

    Waterborne skin infections – seawater or fresh water

    Cefalexin 33 mg/kg (max 1 g) oral tds and Ciprofloxacin 10 mg/kg (max 500 mg) oral bd                                  OR
    Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole 8/40 mg/kg (max 320/1600 mg) oral bd

    5–10 days

    Clean and debride wound as needed
    Prophylactic antibiotics are not recommended

    *Indications for prophylactic antibiotics in a animal/human bite

    • Presentation delayed by >8 hours
    • Puncture wound unable to be adequately debrided
    • Bite on hands, feet, face
    • Involves deep tissues (eg bones, joints, tendons)
    • Involves an open fracture
    • Immunocompromised patient
    • Cat bites

    Suggested antibiotic therapy where MRSA is suspected

    Antimicrobial recommendations may vary according to local antimicrobial susceptibility patterns; please refer to local guidelines

    Diagnosis

    Antibiotic

    Total duration

    Comments

    Mild cellulitis

    Trimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole 4/20 mg/kg (max 160/800 mg) oral bd                                           
    OR
    Clindamycin 10 mg/kg (max 450 mg) oral qid

    5 days

     

    Moderate cellulitis

    A trial of oral antibiotics with close review may be considered
    OR
    Vancomycin IV

     

    When improving, switch to oral antibiotics as per mild cellulitis

    Severe cellulitis
    or
    Staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome

    Vancomycin IV
    OR
    Clindamycin 10 mg/kg (max 600 mg) IV 6H

    When improving, switch to oral antibiotics as per mild cellulitis

     

    Risk factors for MRSA infection 

    • Residence in an area with high prevalence of MRSA, eg Northern Territory, remote communities in northern Queensland
    • Previous colonisation or infection with MRSA (particularly recent)
    • Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander or Pacific Islander child

    Consider consultation with local paediatric team when

    • No improvement or deterioration after 24–48 hours of therapy
    • Deep abscess or necrotising fasciitis suspected — consider surgical opinion 

    Consider transfer when 

    Child requires care above the level of comfort of local hospital

    For emergency advice and paediatric or neonatal ICU transfers, see Retrieval Services

    Consider discharge when 

    Able to tolerate oral antibiotics

    Parent Information
    Cellulitis
    Impetigo
    Staphylococcal infections
    Bleach Baths

    Last Updated March 2020

  • Reference List

    1. Baguley D, Lim E, Bevan A, et al. Prescribing for children - taste and palatability affect adherence to antibiotics: a review. Archives of disease in childhood 2012;97(3):293-7
    2. BMJ Online. Diagnosis and management of cellulitis. https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Gokulan_Phoenix/publication/230633193_Diagnosis_and_management_of_cellulitis/links/0a85e530bc0392334e000000/Diagnosis-and-management-of-cellulitis.pdf (viewed 25 November 2019)
    3. Ibrahim LF, Hopper SM, Orsini F, Daley AJ, Babl FE, Bryant PA. Efficacy and safety of intravenous ceftriaxone at home versus intravenous flucloxacillin in hospital for children with cellulitis (CHOICE): a single-centre, open-label, randomised, controlled, non-inferiority trial. The Lancet Infectious diseases 2019;19(5):477-86
    4. Jamal N, Teach SJ. Necrotizing fasciitis. Pediatric emergency care 2011;27(12):1195-9
    5. Kilburn SA, Featherstone  P, Higgins  B, Brindle  R. Interventions for cellulitis and erysipelas. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2010, Issue 6. Art. No.: CD004299. DOI: 10.1002/14651858.CD004299.pub2
    6. Sullivan T, de Barra E. Diagnosis and management of cellulitis. Clinical Medicine. 2018;18(2):160–163
    7. Therapeutic Guidelines. Acute Wound Infections. https://tgldcdp.tg.org.au.acs.hcn.com.au/viewTopic?topicfile=acute-wound-infections (viewed 30 September 2019)